Written by Throughout history, religious traditions have evolved through contact with neighboring cultures. One significant interaction occurred between Zoroastrianism—the ancient religion of Persia—and Judaism during the Persian Empire’s dominance of the Near East from the 6th century BCE. This article explores the parallelism between Rosh Hashanah and Mehregan, highlighting how Zoroastrianism, which emerged around 550 BCE, influenced Jewish traditions, particularly regarding cosmic renewal, moral judgment, and divine light.
We will also provide references to the key religious texts from both traditions that further emphasize these connections.
1. Historical Context: The Persian Empire and Jewish Influence
When Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BCE, he allowed the exiled Jews to return to their homeland, a gesture recorded in the Cyrus Cylinder and described in the Hebrew Bible:
“Thus says Cyrus, king of Persia: The Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth, and he has charged me to build him a house at Jerusalem…” (Ezra 1:2)
This marked the beginning of the Second Temple period, during which Jewish communities came under the rule of Persian kings who followed Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism, with its teachings on cosmic dualism, final judgment, and the victory of light over darkness, profoundly influenced Jewish theology, as seen in texts written or compiled during the Persian period, such as the Books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and parts of the Book of Daniel.
2. Celebration Dates and Festival Timing
Both Rosh Hashanah and Mehregan are celebrated in the early fall, a time deeply connected to agricultural cycles and cosmic renewal.
- Rosh Hashanah: Celebrated on the first and second days of Tishrei, Rosh Hashanah marks the Jewish New Year and the anniversary of the world’s creation, as described in the Mishnah:
“On Rosh Hashanah, all inhabitants of the world pass before Him like sheep, as it is stated: ‘He who fashions the hearts of them all, who discerns all their deeds.'” (Mishnah, Rosh Hashanah 1:2)
- Mehregan: Zoroastrians celebrate Mehregan on the 16th day of Mehr (the seventh month in the Persian calendar), typically falling in early to mid-October. It honors Mithra, the god of truth and light, who ensures the renewal of the cosmic order. The Avesta, the central Zoroastrian text, praises Mithra for upholding truth and justice:
“We sacrifice unto Mithra… the Lord of wide pastures, who speaks truth, possessing a thousand ears and ten thousand eyes, who upholds all the world with his wisdom.” (Avesta, Yasna 10.43)
The proximity of the two festivals and their shared focus on cosmic renewal and gratitude for the harvest reflect a mutual emphasis on aligning human actions with divine will.
3. Zoroastrian Influence on Jewish Holidays
Zoroastrianism influenced more than just Rosh Hashanah. Several key Jewish holidays align with Zoroastrian festivals and reflect themes rooted in Zoroastrian thought, especially the focus on judgment, truth, and moral accountability.
Yom Kippur and the Concept of Divine Judgment
Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, falls just after Rosh Hashanah and is the culmination of the Ten Days of Repentance. It is the holiest day in the Jewish calendar, where the Book of Life is sealed, determining one’s fate for the coming year. This day of judgment is mirrored in Zoroastrian concepts of post-death judgment found in the Avesta:
“When a person passes away, the soul lingers near the head for three days… On the fourth day, Mithra comes and leads the soul across the Chinvat Bridge, where it is judged.” (Avesta, Vendidad 19)
This belief in a final judgment after death was not as pronounced in pre-exilic Jewish writings. The development of this idea in Judaism during the Persian period is also reflected in the Book of Daniel:
“Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt.” (Daniel 12:2)
Sukkot and Zoroastrian Harvest Celebrations
The festival of Sukkot, which follows Yom Kippur, is a harvest festival celebrating God’s provision during the Israelites’ journey in the desert and in the present day. The emphasis on gratitude for the harvest and divine protection during Sukkot mirrors Zoroastrian practices during Mehregan, which marks the end of the harvest season.
The Book of Nehemiah, written during the Persian period, describes the Jewish celebration of Sukkot:
“And they found it written in the law, which the Lord had commanded by Moses, that the children of Israel should dwell in booths… as in the days of Joshua the son of Nun.” (Nehemiah 8:14-17)
Zoroastrian festivals such as Mehregan and Nowruz (the Persian New Year) similarly celebrate the completion of seasonal cycles, with communal feasts to give thanks for the earth’s bounty, as seen in the Bundahishn:
“At the completion of the year, men shall give praise for the bounty of the earth, for the fire, the water, and the plants, which sustain life.” (Bundahishn 3:15)
Hanukkah and Zoroastrian Light Festivals
The festival of Hanukkah celebrates the miracle of the oil, which burned for eight days in the rededicated temple. The theme of light as a divine symbol is central to this celebration, echoing Zoroastrianism’s emphasis on light as a manifestation of Ahura Mazda’s divine will:
“We sacrifice unto the undying, shining, swift-horsed Sun… which is the eye of Ahura Mazda.” (Avesta, Khorda Avesta)
The Jewish emphasis on light overcoming darkness during Hanukkah resonates with Zoroastrianism’s focus on the eternal struggle between light and darkness, with fire altars and candles symbolizing the divine presence.
4. Renewal and Cosmic Order
Zoroastrian Origins:
In Zoroastrianism, Mehregan celebrates the victory of Mithra, the god of light, who renews the cosmic order by defeating the forces of evil. This annual renewal reflects the broader Zoroastrian belief in the cyclical triumph of good over evil, as described in the Avesta:
“Let the light of Mithra shine forth! Let it dispel the darkness and bring truth, as the wheel of time turns.” (Avesta, Yasht 10.142)
Influence on Judaism:
In Judaism, Rosh Hashanah represents the renewal of the universe. The Mishnah describes it as the anniversary of the world’s creation and a time when God reasserts divine order:
“On Rosh Hashanah, the whole world is judged… and God renews the order of creation.” (Mishnah, Rosh Hashanah 1:1)
Both holidays focus on cosmic renewal, with Rosh Hashanah’s shofar blast symbolizing a spiritual awakening, similar to how Zoroastrian festivals call for the triumph of light over darkness.
5. Moral Accountability and Judgment
Zoroastrian Origins:
In Zoroastrianism, moral accountability is central to the concept of Asha (truth). Humans are judged after death based on their adherence to truth, as seen in the Chinvat Bridge judgment, where the soul is judged by Mithra:
“Mithra, the god of justice, weighs the deeds of the soul on the scales of truth.” (Avesta, Yasht 10.107)
Influence on Judaism:
The theme of divine judgment in Rosh Hashanah reflects this Zoroastrian influence. Jewish theology, especially as seen in post-exilic texts like Daniel and Ecclesiastes, increasingly emphasizes the weighing of deeds and the eventual judgment of souls:
“God will bring every deed into judgment, including every hidden thing, whether it is good or evil.” (Ecclesiastes 12:14)
This focus on judgment, both in life and after death, aligns with the Zoroastrian view of moral dualism, where actions determine one’s eternal fate.
Zoroastrian Influence on Jewish Holidays
The parallelism between Rosh Hashanah and Mehregan reveals a deep connection between these two traditions, shaped during the Persian period. The shared emphasis on cosmic renewal, moral judgment, and the symbolism of light demonstrates how Zoroastrian concepts influenced Jewish holidays, including Yom Kippur, Sukkot, and Hanukkah.
References from both the Avesta and Jewish texts like the Mishnah, Nehemiah, and Daniel highlight how ideas of divine judgment, the battle between light and darkness, and the renewal of the cosmic order are woven into the fabric of both religious systems. This cross-cultural exchange reflects the profound impact of Zoroastrianism on Judaism, particularly in the development of Jewish eschatology, the role of light as a divine symbol, and the structure of Jewish holidays.